This could result in the adoption of policies that are not in the nation's long term interest or disregard the concerns of minority groups. To date, problems with ensuring that information is reliable and secure has hampered the use of the Internet by mainstream political groups.
A number of problems have been identified. Information that is put on Web sites can be easily copied, changed in some way, and passed off as original. Web sites can be duplicated, and while appearing official, can actually discredit candidates, as previously discussed in the case of the false 'Bob Dole for President' page.
E-mail messages may also be 'spoofed'. This process involves the interception of an e-mail message, possibly changing it in some negative way, and resending the message. Any e-mail to President Clinton is currently answered by regular mail.
It is claimed that this is the only way in which the President's office can guarantee reliability. Anyone who receives e-mail from the 'President' can be guaranteed that it is false. The resulting electronic discussion is biased, not representative of the views of the all the participants, and provides a misleading impression of the views of citizens.
Anyone can participate in politics on the Internet anonymously. Messages can be posted to news groups or e-mail lists, Web sites can be established, and other information provided without proper attribution.
Citizens can monitor but not participate in discussions on various topics, and can visit various sites without their presence being known. This anonymity may result in participants failing to have a sense of responsibility for their actions on the Web.
The anonymity and lack of accountability that mark the on-line environment could produce a mean-spirited and ineffective deliberative process that turns 'communities of interest' into 'special interests' and furthers the gridlock of recent years. Unauthorised campaign Web pages, misleading information, and disguised sources can exacerbate the problems with the political process that many are troubled by today.
There is concern amongst some governments that the Internet, like other new communications mediums, is contributing to a 'colonisation' of their countries by US culture. There is a fear that local customs and character will disappear in the face of the overwhelming impact of these communications mediums. As a result, governments including our own, have legislated to ensure that mediums such as TV include a certain amount of local programming. Limiting citizen access to Internet sites which originate in their own country is unrealistic, and citizens will access sites which are of interest to them regardless of the country in which they originate, unless very strong and perhaps politically unacceptable measures are used to prevent this access.
Political sites are no exception. Political party Web sites are often accessed by citizens in other countries, and foreign citizens have sought to make donations to political groups in other countries through the Internet.
Whether this exposure to foreign political parties and their philosophies, and the views of foreign individuals will result in a loss of political diversity, national sovereignty or increased understanding and global tolerance may be an interesting issue in the future.
Failure to fully utilise Internet capabilities. It is evident from looking at the use of the Internet during the US, UK, and Australian elections, that in many instances, the full capabilities of the Internet were not used. Some sites provided information but failed to provide interactive facilities, to enable two way exchanges of information. Some sites fail to be updated, and the links provided fail to work. Sites are criticised for providing 'brochure ware'-the same sort of information that would be provided on a brochure-and fail to be imaginative and creative.
By failing to exploit the full capabilities of the Internet, any potential benefits the Internet may bring to the political process are unlikely to be realised. It is clear that there are great hopes for the Internet as far as enhancing the political process. It is also clear that in many cases to date, the benefits of the Internet fail to be exploited.
Some of these constraints are likely however to have technological solutions, and political organisations will find it increasingly necessary to use the Internet as an integral part of their political strategy. Subsequently, it may be of interest to explore what could become guidelines for effective use of the Internet.
While these may change with technological advances, some guidelines could include the necessity to:. Understand the fundamentals of the Internet.
If political figures do not understand the way in which the Internet works, they are less likely to be familiar with activities on the Net concerning them, to use the Net effectively, or to be involved in the interactive facilities. Lack of familiarity will also mean that individuals are more likely to be caught unprepared by questions from the electorate or the media concerning the Internet. Users may be less than charitable to those who do not understand the Internet, and political figures could face credibility problems without this knowledge.
Understand the limitations of the Internet. The Internet currently does not reach everyone-there are the information 'have nots' who do not have access. Even in the future, the Internet is unlikely to reach per cent of the population. Many uses of the Internet also require the user to be motivated enough to spend time and effort accessing information-and information on the Internet generally does not reach an incidental audience-as does information on conventional media such as TV and newspapers.
Use the interactive capabilities of the Internet. The Internet is a two way communications medium. Information can be sent and received. The receipt of information is one of the major benefits of the Internet, and organisations that fail to provide constituents with interactive facilities will fail to exploit one of its major benefits. Use the multimedia facilities of the Internet.
Sound and video is now possible on the Internet, and while currently somewhat 'gimmicky', use during important events could generate substantial positive publicity if done well.
Integrate use of the Internet with other activities, strategies and campaigns. The Internet could complement other activities traditionally undertaken by political organisations, and is likely to be its most effective as part of a complete package of strategies.
Allocate adequate resources to Internet based activities. While communications through the Internet are relatively cheap, they are not cost free, and require adequate resources. This may involve ensuring that Web sites are put on reliable computers with the capacity to handle the expected demand, and ensuring that sites are designed and maintained effectively. Maintenance has been a particular problem with some sites in the past with sites representing parties in the British General Election being especially criticised.
It is also crucial that if the Internet is used to invite interactivity-as it should be-that the organisation has the resources to respond. This may entail replying to e-mail requests for information, participating in discussion groups, and modifying Web sites or other uses of the Internet according the feedback received.
Exploit the ability of the Internet to 'narrowcast' not just 'broadcast'. The target population can be segmented and sent specific information - the same information does not need to be provided to all. Similarly technology exists for users to customise generic Web sites so that each time they subsequently visit the site they only see the things that are of particular interest to them.
Use the Internet for a range of purposes not just to inform the electorate about policies and activities. Connected organisations are already using the Net for the following purposes: 48 Public relations Organisations can avoid the filtering effect of the media by accessing the public directly.
Recruitment Users can join the party directly, or assist in other ways, such as monitoring and reporting on an opponent's activities. Member communications Party activities can be coordinated. Media relations The Internet can be used to distribute press releases, provide personal contacts for journalists, provide background to stories, plant news, and to distribute favourable press coverage.
Fund raising The Internet may support a range of fund raising activities that complement conventional activities. Group communications Communications and alliances between groups with similar goals can be facilitated. Political discussions The Internet can be used to gauge public opinion on issues, to test new ideas, and discussions between group members may act as morale boosters within the group. Internet technology is increasingly being used to facilitate the political process.
Some commentators believe that appropriate use of the Internet may help address current concerns about the political system. Against this background, there are hopes that the Internet can be used to keep citizens properly informed about issues, and allow them to participate in the decision making process, and 'reconnect' the citizenry.
Responding to the new technology, organisations and individuals are establishing Web sites, using e-mail and news groups to communicate their political philosophies. In the last couple of years, the major parties in Australia, the UK and the US amongst others have used the Internet-and this use increases especially during election campaigns.
To date however, mainstream groups have generally not fully exploited the potential of the technology for a variety of reasons.
Grass roots organisations or rebel groups have however used the Internet extensively, as it provides them with a cost effective communications medium that suits their purposes, and they have fewer communications alternatives than established, relatively stable groups. Despite some hopes that the Internet could revitalise and revolutionise politics, there are a number of problems that may restrict its usefulness.
The technology is not available to everyone, and reliance on it may exacerbate differences between the 'haves' and 'have nots' in society. The ideal 'electronic democracy' may be impractical, and the collective decisions central to this democracy undeliverable.
Internet technology may not change the low priority given to political activity by most people, and current patterns of political non-participation continue. There are also significant security concerns that currently constrain the use of the technology, and although it may be possible to devise technological solutions to these problems, lingering concerns about security may continue to curtail use of the Internet for some time.
Although technological and other constraints may serve to limit the use of the Internet for political purposes, of greater concern may be the less than fully effective ways in which the Internet has in many cases been used.
In order to fully exploit the Internet, organisations and individuals need to have a solid understanding of the technology and its capabilities and limitations, and be able to adjust their strategies accordingly. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, , p. Richard Barbrook, Electronic Democracy, p.
Available from ma. Canberra, AGPS, Farah Farouque, 'Fire in young bellies'. The Age, 11 December , p. Available from www. Charles S. Anthony Corrado and Charles M. Available at www. Paul Hughes, op.
Anthony Corrado, op. Internet users are more likely to be educated, financially better off than the average, younger, and male. New York: W. Freeman, , p. Household use of Information Technology: Australia. Browning, Graeme, Updating electronic democracy, p. Wayne Rash, op. Ibid, p. Noble, quoted in Browning: , p. White, op. Research by F.
Arterton demonstrated that while technology did improve citizen access to decision making and participation, it did not reduce apathy. In addition, his research shows that two thirds of US citizens will not participate in the political process regardless of the technology F.
Arterton, Teledemocracy: Can technology protect democracy? Graeme Browning, op. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Household use of information technology: Australia, February Canberra: ABS, Civics Expert Group, Whereas the people Canberra: AGPS, Corrado, Anthony and Firestone, Charles M. Friedland, Lewis A. Farouque, Farah, 'Fire in young bellies'. The Age , 11 December , p. Jacques, Wayne W. Payne, J. Freeman, Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, Street, John, 'Remote Control?
White, Charles S. American Civilization -discussion of visions for the future of American Civilization. Democracy Ireland Online -issues are presented for comment, and then voted on. Then you can sit there and sagely attribute your success to your continuing mastery of local politics rather than to whatever it took to get the seat in the first place.
The claim I want to make is that elections in the United States have become increasingly nationalized in recent decades. That is, Kaus is right. Here is some evidence from presidential elections. For each presidential election year in the graph below, I computed the interquartile range that is, the 75th percentile minus the 25th percentile of the swings in vote proportions for the Republicans in the 50 states.
I exclude third-party votes. The next step was to do this calculation by counties. For each year, I computed the interquartile range for all 3, counties in the United States and also just for the counties outside of the South. South Dakota lawmakers are readying to issue a subpoena on Gov. The Gulf nation of Qatar has agreed to represent U. Robert Califf to again lead the powerful regulatory agency.
Republican Sen. Lisa Murkowski of Alaska says she's running for reelection next year. In the past week, Republican Rep. Paul Gosar tweeted a video showing a character with his face killing a figure with Rep.
Secretary of State Antony Blinken will travel to Africa next week as the Biden administration intensifies diplomatic efforts to resolve crises in Ethiopia and Sudan and seeks to boost counterterrorism cooperation. Nearly six months ago, U. A pilot program to help reduce bison at Grand Canyon National Park by shooting them has wrapped up with four of the animals killed. A federal appeals court has temporarily blocked the release of White House records sought by a U.
0コメント